PLATO, ARISTOTLE, AND VIRTUE ETHICS

MORAL PHILOSOPHY
MODULE II: PLATO, ARISTOTLE, AND VIRTUE ETHICS

I. ETHICS OF PLATO
The Republic is the most fruitful source of Plato’s ethical theory. His ethical theory is inseparably connected to his view of universe, his view of human being, his view of society and state. In Republic he attempts to set forth the ideal state, the society on which embodies his ethical theory. Ethical knowledge according to Plato is more austere than mathematics because it involves a process of understanding of what is good, in terms of ‘real’, and is finally realizing this through virtuous actions.

Two Tier Levels of Reality
1. The world of perception or the realm of appearance
This is not the real world. It involves the world of sights, sounds, individual things, change and relativity.

2. The realm of thought
It is the world of ideas concepts and universals. This is a world of abiding realities. We recognize individual things because of our knowledge of ideas or universals.
Thus for Plato reality consist in ‘ideas’. The goal of the world is the expression of the idea of good. The principles and the conceptions of the ethical knowledge can be subsumed under “the idea of good is the highest knowledge.”

Then what is the good both relative and supreme according to him. The human soul is composed of three parts
1. Rational part
It is the mind, located in the brain, whose function is to rule the body and is the seat of the wisdom
2. Feeling part
It is located in the breast and is the seat of the sensations and the basis of the heroic virtues especially courage.
3. Desiring part
It is located in the abdomen and is the seat of the man’s passion and appetites. There is not any principal order here, and this part needs to be brought under the control of reason.
When all the three parts operate in harmony, each carrying out its own function, there is peace and order

This classification is in analogue with Plato’s classification of the people of a state as,
1. The rulers
2. The officials
3. The workers

Rational being and the state indicates the ‘Justice’ or ‘Righteousness’ is the all inclusive virtue. A just man does not allow the several elements within him to interfere with one another. “Just people” are then “integrated” reason, emotion, desire function harmoniously with in them. On the other hand “unjust” individuals are beset by inner rebellion within their souls. Accordingly, those actions which preserve a harmonious state in humans will be deemed good and those that diminish it will be bad.
The doctrine that “virtue is knowledge” is expanded by Plato in the Republic in such a way as to give solid foundation to his ethics. Each of the three elements of the soul is involved in moral behavior and each when carries out its proper function, is characterized by an appropriate value.
Governing the soul by reason constitutes wisdom
Rational regulation of the desires constitutes the ‘temperance’
The support of reason by the passions constitutes the courage;
The harmony of three faculties constitutes the ‘justice ‘the supreme virtue.

The Theory of Forms
The ideal forms of every thing that exists in the intelligible world constitute both the ideal and real so the good. The knowledge of the good is the ultimate knowledge upon which moral virtues are based.
According to the metaphysics of Plato, real goodness is ideal, and the actual sensible world is merely a copy of pure and timeless forms. The ultimate aim or the purpose of the human beings is good or happiness which is the ultimate moral motivation. Ideal goodness can be attained only by the mind of the rational persons

Education
The gal of the education is the imitation of good. “Virtues are teachable” and the education helps one to make reliable judgments on what is good .the souls happiness consists in freeing itself from the imprisonment to the world of senses through knowledge and virtue.

A perfect man, in Plato’s ethics would be the product of long years of study and of training in good habits. He will be an elderly well balanced character, free from the impulses of the lower nature and living according to the higher powers of soul

II. ARISTOTLE
INTRODUCTION
Aristotle was born in 384 BC in Stagira, a small town on the coast of the Aegean Sea, about two hundred miles north of Athens. At the age of seventeen he was sent to Plato for education and after twenty years of long learning he left the school. He was the teacher of the great Alexander for three years .the final year of Aristotle’s life was spent in exile and died at sixty-three years of age.

ARISTOTLE’S MAIN WORKS ON ETHICS
1. Eudemian Ethics
2. Nichomachean Ethics
Eudemian Ethics: Eudemus compiled it
Nichomachean Ethics: This work was dedicated to either his father or son.

Aristotle differs from his teacher Plato chiefly in method and emphasis rather than in fundamental point of view. Whereas Plato accepts to explain particulars as copies of Universal, Aristotle begins his studies with an examination of the facts of human experiences. For Aristotle there is only one world of reality, i.e., the visible world of nature. Ideals exist, but they exist in things. Reality is found in things; it is an unfolding process. Ideas are things, or form and matters, are united; there is continuous development from potentiality to actuality. The spiritual and natural are inseparably connected. The moral ideal is found in the human nature itself.

There is close inter relation between Ethics and Politics in Aristotle’s writings. Nichomachean Ethics is declared to be ‘Politics’ by Aristotle; so also, the work, which is titled ‘Politics’, is presented as the sequel to the ethics. Both of them aim at finding out the ways and means to be Happy. Ethics shows how happiness the supreme good can be attained by the practice of virtues and contemplation. The politics, on the other hand, deals with what particular form of constitution, what set of institutions are necessary to maintain and safeguard the ideal form of virtuous life in the society Aristotle began his Ethical inquiry with an empirical investigation of what people fundamentally desire.

He writes in Nichomachean Ethics: “Every art and inquiry and similarly every action and pursuit is thought, is thought to aim” at same good has rightly been declared to be that at which all things aim. This good is happiness (eudemonia), for it is self sufficient, attainable and final,” SUMMUM BONUM” (the supreme good, ultimate happiness). Happiness can be attained only by the regulations of the irrational movements of the soul by reason. Thus, happiness depends upon, the actualization of one’s rationality.

All natures, according to Aristotle are thought to be end-directed. The final end of each man’s activity is the continued internal realization of one’s potentiality. This includes the notion of living well and doing well. Human good, which other wise known as happiness is the activity of the soul in accordance with virtue. Good and bad can be distinguished by observing what the good man approves and tends to do.
Good actions  Good habits Virtue  Virtuous person.

Human nature is divided into two:
1. Irrational side:
a. Vegetative segment - no control by reason.
b. Appetitive segment - which has shares with lower animals. This can be controlled.
2. Rational side: it is constituted by the rational nature of the human.
The rational part of the human may be engaged in reflective contemplation upon the nature of things or, it may direct its energy to control the impulse arising from his irrational nature. By redirecting irrational impulses into rational virtues, human personality is perfected and the highest is welfare is attained through the practice of virtues.

Two kinds of virtues
1. Intellectual virtues: philosophical wisdom and under standing, practical wisdom. They are inborn and resulting from teaching.
2. Moral virtues (virtues of character): such as liberty, temperance etc.
Intellectual virtues ranked highest, but knowledge alone is not sufficient. Our reason must be employed to move our will.
The good depends upon the exercise and development of his rational nature. When reason attains the mastery and the direction of life (habitually) human excellence and happiness are attained. The habit of right thinking, right willing, and right acting is a virtue.

Further Aristotle introduces the idea of voluntariness in moral order. Virtue is a personality characteristic that results from regular practice of the right act until it becomes a habit of the individual. It is impossible to realize moral virtues out side society. Education should teach us t find happiness in worthwhile things and to feel discomfort in seeking the wrong things.

Mean
Moral virtue is the virtue of character. To fulfill his proper function, aim at an intermediary point between opposing extremes of excess and deficiency. The morally virtuous person is one who act according to the golden mean the golden mean need not be same for all. Here reasons seem the balanced course between too much and too little. Nothing over much is the counsel of sanity. The good life is one that encourages the harmonious development of normal functions. E.g. courage is the middle position between rashness and cowardness .it is the central balanced point.

Circumstances
Aristotle tells ‘the balanced course between the too much and the too little is the mean.’ The point between the extremes is moral action that depends on the circumstances. When we consider the virtuous action or conduct, the circumstances and the reason together should be taken into consideration. The practice of the virtues enabled the human being to control over the ‘passions’, the irrational element of the soul.

Definition of Virtue
“Excellence [moral virtue] ,then is a state [habit] concerned with choice , lying in the mean relative to us this being determined by the reason [logos] and the way in which the practical wisdom [the prudent man ] would determine it.”

If we have the right reason, then, we can enhance the moral virtues. If we practice the moral virtues, right reason will be prominent. Right reason only will be present ion a person who has the right action. he can achieve more moral virtues by doing right reason habitually . It is impossible to be practically wise without being good.

Aristotle distinguishes between two kinds of virtue: moral virtue and intellectual virtue

Aristotle says that moral virtues are not innate, but that they are acquired by developing the habit of exercising them. The moral virtues include: courage, temperance, self-discipline, moderation, modesty, humility, generosity, friendliness, truthfulness, honesty, justice. The moral vices include: cowardice, self-indulgence, recklessness, wastefulness, greed, vanity, untruthfulness, dishonesty, injustice. Acts of virtue bring honor to an individual, acts of vice bring dishonor to an individual

According to Aristotle, the intellectual virtues include: scientific knowledge (episteme), artistic or technical knowledge (techne), intuitive reason (nous), practical wisdom (phronesis), and philosophic wisdom (sophia). Scientific knowledge is knowledge of what is necessary and universal. Artistic or technical knowledge is knowledge of how to make things, or of how to develop a craft. Intuitive reason is the process that establishes the first principles of knowledge. Practical wisdom is the capacity to act in accordance with the good of humanity. Philosophic wisdom is the combination of intuitive reason and scientific knowledge

Justice
Justice is not a part of virtues but the whole of virtues. Then injustice is not a part of vice but the whole of vice.
There are two conditions for our action to be just: 1) The practical proposition must be true, 2) The desire must be right
According to Aristotle, you should have control over all your actions and should integrate the theoretical and practical wisdom in to your actions. This integration is the most divine for a moral being

Nichomachean Ethics
The Nicomachean Ethics is divided into ten books. Book I discusses how good is to be defined, Books II-V discuss the moral virtues, Book VI discusses intellectual virtue, Book VII describes moral continence and incontinence, Books VIII-IX describe the nature of friendship, and Book X discusses how pleasure and happiness are to be defined.

There is close interrelation between ETHICS and POLITICS in Aristotle’s writings. Nichomachean Ethics is declared to be ‘politics’ by Aristotle; so also, the work which is titled Politics is presented as the sequel to the ethics. Both of them aim at finding out the ways and means to be happy. Ethics shows how happiness, the supreme good, can be attained by the practice of virtues and contemplation.

The politics, on the other hand, deals with what particular form of constitution, what set of institutions are necessary to maintain and safeguard the ideal form of virtuous life.

Aristotle began his ethical inquiry with an empirical investigation of what people fundamentally desire. He writes in Nichomachean Ethics:“Every art and every inquiry and similarly every action and pursuit, is thought to aim at some good; and for this reason the good has rightly been declared to be that at which all things aim” (Book 1, Chapter 1).This good is happiness (eudaimonia); for it is self-sufficient, attainable an Happiness can be attained only by the regulation of the irrational movements of the soul by the reason. Thus, happiness depends upon the actualization of one’s rationality.

In virtue ethics, there will not be any quantitarial ethics but there is qualititarial ethics. Aristotle tells us, you can be a virtuous and moral person only through the contemplation as well as right action. The virtuous person has the practical wisdom, the ability to know what and how best to apply the various moral perspectives.