Sullivan J. Roger, An Introduction to Kant's Ethics, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994, pages: 177, ISBN: 0-521-46769-1.
An Introduction to Kant's Ethics is a commentary on Kant's Foundations (Groundwork) of the Metaphysics of Morals. This book includes ten chapters. In the introduction author says his inspiration to write this book. Being an abstract nature of moral philosophy of Kantian ethics, the basic book of Kant's ethics is Foundations. But sometimes the students will not get this knowledge in a proper way. So author is trying, here, to simplify the ethical theories proposed in Foundations. The first five chapters are from Foundations 1. The sixth chapter is an evaluation on Categorical Imperative. The following three chapters are from Foundations 2 and the last is from Foundations 3.
First chapter mainly deals with the Political theory of Kant. Because of the influence of Machiavelli and Frederick the Great, Kant began his political theory. Kant proposed his political theory based on reason, which is known as "Universal Principle of Justice." According to this theory, only those civil arrangements are just that allow the most freedom for everyone alike. Kant gave importance to social as well as personal dimensions in political world. Everyone has their own dignity in the social life. Kant states that, it is because of innate power of reason which gives the person dignity in the social status. Kant called this power and responsibility to act on the Universal Principle of Justice "autonomy." Autonomous means that, the fundamental laws of the state should apply to everyone equally, with no exceptions made in favor of the wealthy or the powerful, the gifted or the educated. This principle of equality also implies a principle of universality. Kant's moral theory holds four moral norms: (1) moral norms cannot be based on experience, (2) it is crucial to situate morality firmly within the public forum, (3) necessity is never an adequate excuse for violating moral standards and (4) effectiveness is not a measure of moral character. Kant also tried to make a relation in between public and private morality.
The second chapter narrates on Categorical Imperative; which Kant considered the ultimate norm of morality. In his book Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals, Kant offered three different formulas. They are Formula of Autonomy or of Universal Law, Formula of Respect for the Dignity of Persons and Formula of Legislation for moral community. Kant asked four questions to find out the principles of Categorical Imperative: what makes a person, morally good? What kind of intention makes a person morally good? What does it mean for a person to intend to act "from duty?" What is this moral law that can give rise to respect as to outweigh every other motive? Kant, thus, derived the formulas of the Categorical Imperative. By a closer look to his Categorical Imperative and to his Universal Principle of Justice, we can draw a parallel road between them. Categorical Imperative has two different functions: to command our obedience and to test possible maxims.
Coming three chapters put forward a detailed study on the three formulas of Categorical Imperative one by one respectively. The first formula is of Autonomy or of Universal law. This is objective law because they are self-consistent as well as consistent with other policies. The requirement of Universality is a criterion of reciprocity. Here maxim is tested considering a lying promise. Kant also proposes several examples to find out maxims.
Second formula is of respect for the dignity of persons. It is not purely formal, because it introduces the notion of humanity. Thus it holds that all are required to respect the freedom and ability of each person to make his or her own decision. Everyone has a fundamental dignity simply as a person, and no one has the moral right to interfere with the lawful freedom of others or to use them merely for his or her own purposes. This is just what the second formula enjoins. Kant proposed persons cannot be equated with things, which have extrinsic value, but persons have intrinsic value. So self-respect and respect for others is needed.
Third formula is of legislation for a moral community. Kant explained this formula by introducing three facts: the moral community is state, the ethical community is church and our final destiny is Highest Good. Kant concluded that the complete final good for the human species, our ultimate "necessary end" consists in both our obligatory end –good moral character- and our natural end –happiness or well-being.
Sixth chapter is like an evaluation on Categorical Imperative. It puts forward some of the limits of the Categorical Imperative. In the matter of permissible action, Categorical Imperative plays only on maxims that everyone else may adopt, all other things being equal, what is morally permissible for one person is also morally permissible for everyone else similarly situated. Categorical Imperative makes limitation when there are conflicts between moral rules and moral judgments. The problem is that, Kant did not clearly distinguish between judging the moral quality of a maxim and judging now to act in a particular instance.
Seventh chapter proposes the contrast between morality and prudence. Morality is radically different from prudence. Prudential reasoning turns out to be a singularly weak guide to happiness. So it cannot hope to offer us reliable maxims for the attainment of a goal. But morality is autonomy that is, the power of reason to enact laws to be "a low unto itself," regardless of any influences from outside itself. Prudential rules do not fit to serve as moral rules and prudential actions, have no intrinsic moral worth. Moral law should be autonomous. Kant's this constitute is known as "Copernican revolution." An autonomous person can and should be responsible, self-governing. They rule out certain kinds of coercive interference by others. Thus autonomy denotes our ability and responsibility to know what morality requires of us and to act accordingly. In a derivative sense, the autonomous person is one who exercises this ability and lives up to this responsibility.
Eighth chapter deals on moral character. We can discuss the nature of character from either a theoretical or a practical point of view. There is always an internal conflict in human. Desires and inclinations can be "subjective hindrance to" and "a powerful counterweight to" the moral law. So Kant concluded that we do not just experience "neutral" choice between the moral law and our desires. Instead, we often find ourselves feeling reluctant to acknowledge the requirements of the moral law within us, so that we have to make a positive effort to act dutifully. Kant emphasized that if an action is to have moral value for us we need to recognize the specifically moral value in that action and then act on that recognition. Accordingly, acting on the basis only of a desire for pleasure has no moral worth and desire need to be regarded as rivals to morality. So when we act from mixed motivation, we are virtuous only insofar as we do what we ought because we are motivated to do so by the moral law. When we are fulfilling our positives duties, clearly we are in fact acting from mixed motives, but not in the same that Kant condemned in the foundations.
The coming chapter is like an evaluation. When examining Kant's explication of Categorical Imperative, we have encountered many of our moral duties. We can organize all these duties by asking three questions. (1) What kind of political system should we have? (2) What kind of person should each of us aim to become? (3) What should our personal associations be like?
The last chapter narrates on the defense of morality. Kant defends the claim that we actually are the kind of agents. We are purportedly moral agents who act on the law of Autonomy only contingently, that law appears to us as an imperative, as the Categorical Imperative, obligating us never to act contrary to it. Kant came to two conclusions to explain how it is possible for us to be moral agents. First, "nothing is left but defense," that is, the defense of our right to take ourselves to be free and second, that we have no alternative but to look for that defense in our own moral experience, in our own inner rational awareness of our spontaneity when we think practically.
This book deserves appreciation for its excellent quality of research on Kant's Foundations (Groundwork) of the Metaphysics of Morals. It is a critical, creative and systematic evaluation. The presentation is very captivating and is capable of generating further interest. I am sure, those who have difficult to understand the ethical principles of Kant, this book provides a simple path.
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